Scientific- Research Quarterly of Geographical Data (SEPEHR)

A Discussion on the Principles of Remote Sensing - Application of Remote Sensing in Municipal Engineering (1) - Part I

Mahdi Modiri

Volume 6, Issue 21 , May 1997, , Pages 20-28

Abstract

  Remote sensing is a science that provides valuable information on objects and land features by measuring distances from afar and without physical contact. In remote sensing, information can be obtained by measuring and recording the reflections of electromagnetic waves of atmosphere and ground level, ...  Read More Remote sensing is a science that provides valuable information on objects and land features by measuring distances from afar and without physical contact. In remote sensing, information can be obtained by measuring and recording the reflections of electromagnetic waves of atmosphere and ground level, which are received by sensors installed on satellites, and after their analysis, the necessary information is extracted. There are three major factors of reflection, absorption and passage in the collision of electromagnetic waves with any phenomenon, each of which depends on the wavelength of radiated energy and physical and chemical properties of the phenomenon, and the energy reflection from any phenomenon on the Earth is a function of wavelength, molecular and intracellular properties of the phenomenon and other physical characteristics of the objects under measurement. The satellite data originally contains various geometric and radiometric errors that are affected by satellite, sensor and atmospheric conditions, as well as errors in recording, transmission of Satellite data become valuable and useful after making geometric and radiometric corrections. By performing geometric corrections, satellite information is readily to for analysis and utilization.

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Automation in Cartography

Mahdi Modiri

Volume 6, Issue 24 , February 1997, , Pages 2-6

Abstract

  Computer can be programmed in order to draw maps at different graphic levels with the help of various output systems including printers, plotters and display systems. These automatic graphic machines share one attitude: they carry out whole or part of drawing with reliable speed and accuracy several ...  Read More Computer can be programmed in order to draw maps at different graphic levels with the help of various output systems including printers, plotters and display systems. These automatic graphic machines share one attitude: they carry out whole or part of drawing with reliable speed and accuracy several times greater than human’s hand. On the whole, basic information of these maps, implemented by manual or automatic methods, must be fed into computers.

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Mahdi Modiri

Volume 5, Issue 19 , November 1996, , Pages 2-7

Abstract

  In reproduction and printing of an image, it is not possible to create an image similar to the original one, and there is no need for it. In order to provide an acceptable image, what is necessary is a tonal display. In this operation, the eyes and brain assist to compensate for the difference in light ...  Read More In reproduction and printing of an image, it is not possible to create an image similar to the original one, and there is no need for it. In order to provide an acceptable image, what is necessary is a tonal display. In this operation, the eyes and brain assist to compensate for the difference in light between the tone and the colored backgrounds. Before we obtain an acceptable tonal picture, we need to examine the image reproduction system and its features. There are two general categories of image reproduction systems: Systems that have the ability to provide acceptable tones and systems that cannot do this.

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A Note on the Principles of Remote Sensing - Part IV

Mahdi Modiri

Volume 5, Issue 19 , November 1996, , Pages 19-24

Abstract

  Remote sensing is a science that provides valuable information on objects and land features by measuring distances from afar and without physical contact. In remote sensing, information can be obtained by measuring and recording the reflections of electromagnetic waves of atmosphere and ground level, ...  Read More Remote sensing is a science that provides valuable information on objects and land features by measuring distances from afar and without physical contact. In remote sensing, information can be obtained by measuring and recording the reflections of electromagnetic waves of atmosphere and ground level, which are received by sensors installed on satellites, and after their analysis, the necessary information is extracted. There are three major factors of reflection, absorption and passage in the collision of electromagnetic waves with any phenomenon, each of which depends on the wavelength of radiated energy and physical and chemical properties of the phenomenon, and the energy reflection from any phenomenon on the Earth is a function of wavelength, molecular and intracellular properties of the phenomenon and other physical characteristics of the objects under measurement. The satellite data originally contains various geometric and radiometric errors that are affected by satellite, sensor and atmospheric conditions, as well as errors in recording, transmission of information and other related issues. Satellite data become valuable and useful after making geometric and radiometric corrections. By performing geometric corrections, satellite information is readily to for analysis and utilization.

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Mahdi Modiri

Volume 5, Issue 18 , August 1996, , Pages 2-3

Abstract

  One of the important points in displaying the ground features on map is tone and tonal relationship. What sets up the provider-user connection in maps and conveys the message is a set of signs, symbols and colors. The signs and symbols of each map can be divided into real and virtual symbols, each ...  Read More One of the important points in displaying the ground features on map is tone and tonal relationship. What sets up the provider-user connection in maps and conveys the message is a set of signs, symbols and colors. The signs and symbols of each map can be divided into real and virtual symbols, each of which contains point (spatial), linear and surface marks. • Real point signs include cases such as geodetic and levelling points, lighthouse, springs, mosques, stations, etc.; linear such as road networks, railways, watercourses, rivers and power lines; surface signs like forests , ranges, farms, salt pans (Kavir), parks and many more; • Virtual signs are also in the form of points, lines, and surfaces; virtual point signs such as magnetic north; linear sings such as international political, provincial, county, district and rural boundaries, aerial paths of aircrafts and ships’ sailing courses; surface signs including protected areas, climatic divisions, etc.

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A Note on the Principles of Remote Sensing - Part III

Mahdi Modiri

Volume 5, Issue 18 , August 1996, , Pages 19-27

Abstract

  Remote sensing is a science that provides valuable information on objects and land features by measuring distances from afar and without physical contact. In remote sensing, information can be obtained by measuring and recording the reflections of electromagnetic waves of atmosphere and ground level, ...  Read More Remote sensing is a science that provides valuable information on objects and land features by measuring distances from afar and without physical contact. In remote sensing, information can be obtained by measuring and recording the reflections of electromagnetic waves of atmosphere and ground level, which are received by sensors installed on satellites, and after their analysis, the necessary information is extracted. There are three major factors of reflection, absorption and passage in the collision of electromagnetic waves with any phenomenon, each of which depends on the wavelength of radiated energy and physical and chemical properties of the phenomenon, and the energy reflection from any phenomenon on the Earth is a function of wavelength, molecular and intracellular properties of the phenomenon and other physical characteristics of the objects under measurement. The satellite data originally contains various geometric and radiometric errors that are affected by satellite, sensor and atmospheric conditions, as well as errors in recording, transmission of information and other related issues. Satellite data become valuable and useful after making geometric and radiometric corrections. By performing geometric corrections, satellite information is readily to for analysis and utilization.

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Mahdi Modiri

Volume 5, Issue 17 , May 1996, , Pages 2-5

Abstract

  GIS, like other information systems, consists of sub systems. • Data entry sub-system; • storage and data-recovery Subsystem; • processing and data analysis Subsystem; • Information outlet Subsystem. A system can be called a GIS whose software system includes all four of the above ...  Read More GIS, like other information systems, consists of sub systems. • Data entry sub-system; • storage and data-recovery Subsystem; • processing and data analysis Subsystem; • Information outlet Subsystem. A system can be called a GIS whose software system includes all four of the above functions. Consequently, most digital mapping systems, remote sensing systems, and thematic mapping systems are not GIS. Today, database management and analysis are important functions, but in the future, modern functionalities such as the use of artificial intelligence or visualization might come about, which will be among the most prominent features of GIS, and there is no reason why GIS should be limited only to the technology.

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A Note on the Principles of Remote Sensing - Part II

Mahdi Modiri

Volume 5, Issue 17 , May 1996, , Pages 11-16

Abstract

  Remote sensing is a science that provides valuable information on objects and land features by measuring distances from afar and without physical contact. In remote sensing, information can be obtained by measuring and recording the reflections of electromagnetic waves of atmosphere and ground level, ...  Read More Remote sensing is a science that provides valuable information on objects and land features by measuring distances from afar and without physical contact. In remote sensing, information can be obtained by measuring and recording the reflections of electromagnetic waves of atmosphere and ground level, which are received by sensors installed on satellites, and after their analysis, the necessary information is extracted. There are three major factors of reflection, absorption and passage in the collision of electromagnetic waves with any phenomenon, each of which depends on the wavelength of radiated energy and physical and chemical properties of the phenomenon, and the energy reflection from any phenomenon on the Earth is a function of wavelength, molecular and intracellular properties of the phenomenon and other physical characteristics of the objects under measurement. The satellite data originally contains various geometric and radiometric errors that are affected by satellite, sensor and atmospheric conditions, as well as errors in recording, transmission of information and other related issues. Satellite data become valuable and useful after making geometric and radiometric corrections. By performing geometric corrections, satellite information is readily to for analysis and utilization.

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Mahdi Modiri

Volume 5, Issue 20 , February 1996, , Pages 2-3

Abstract

  In the map and image printing process, several factors contribute to the reduction of accuracy and esthetic appeal. In fine print works, half-tone points have a diameter of about 0.2 millimeters; these points, like many small objects, undergo deformation and gain complexity on the big-world, human and ...  Read More In the map and image printing process, several factors contribute to the reduction of accuracy and esthetic appeal. In fine print works, half-tone points have a diameter of about 0.2 millimeters; these points, like many small objects, undergo deformation and gain complexity on the big-world, human and physical scales. When pixels and half-tone points are transmitted from address network to print page, mathematical shapes are affected by physical machines. Lithography, printing process and mechanical complications are also added. These disturbances affect the final image, and the degree of this effect depends on the nature of the half-tone structure, the nature of the image and the physical process. In order to avoid any increase of half-tone disadvantages, awareness of the factors affecting the image is necessary. Here the various sections of the common method are reviewed briefly.

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A Note on the Principles of Remote Sensing: Application of Remote Sensing in Municipal Engineering - Part V

Mahdi Modiri

Volume 5, Issue 20 , February 1996, , Pages 20-25

Abstract

  Remote sensing is a science that provides valuable information on objects and land features by measuring distances from afar and without physical contact. In remote sensing, information can be obtained by measuring and recording the reflections of electromagnetic waves of atmosphere and ground level, ...  Read More Remote sensing is a science that provides valuable information on objects and land features by measuring distances from afar and without physical contact. In remote sensing, information can be obtained by measuring and recording the reflections of electromagnetic waves of atmosphere and ground level, which are received by sensors installed on satellites, and after their analysis, the necessary information is extracted. There are three major factors of reflection, absorption and passage in the collision of electromagnetic waves with any phenomenon, each of which depends on the wavelength of radiated energy and physical and chemical properties of the phenomenon, and the energy reflection from any phenomenon on the Earth is a function of wavelength, molecular and intracellular properties of the phenomenon and other physical characteristics of the objects under measurement. The satellite data originally contains various geometric and radiometric errors that are affected by satellite, sensor and atmospheric conditions, as well as errors in recording, transmission of information and other related issues. Satellite data become valuable and useful after making geometric and radiometric corrections. By performing geometric corrections, satellite information is readily to for analysis and utilization.

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Mahdi Modiri

Volume 4, Issue 15 , November 1995, , Pages 2-6

Abstract

  The Cartographic Information System (GIS) produces a map, and the output can be graphic, printed or maps on the computer screen. Maps are generally different in appearance and dimensions. It is sometimes difficult to say that a product or output is an image or a map on a computer screen, which has a ...  Read More The Cartographic Information System (GIS) produces a map, and the output can be graphic, printed or maps on the computer screen. Maps are generally different in appearance and dimensions. It is sometimes difficult to say that a product or output is an image or a map on a computer screen, which has a different name from paper maps. In the history of automatic cartography, the term "temporary map" and "permanent map" have been used. According to Riffe, a temporary map is the one that appears on the screen, or maps on the screen that have a conventional application. Temporary maps can be referred to as “intelligent maps”, which, in the strict sense of the word, are actually not available today. Riffe defines the term “non-map” in this way; data is obtained from sensors that are used in navigation and traffic control. He states that future maps are all temporary maps and non-maps. Morrison uses the title "Temporal Map" as a synonym for maps on the computer screen, and then uses the title "Printed Map" in contrast with it. The term “instant map” has also been used for the computer screen map.

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Mahdi Modiri

Volume 4, Issue 14 , August 1995, , Pages 2-5

Abstract

  The computer-based system's structure is mainly hierarchical and GIS is a hierarchical structure that is made up of several sub-systems at different levels, and each sub-system has a certain function. The required set of functions is different according to the type of GIS. Examples of a sub-system include ...  Read More The computer-based system's structure is mainly hierarchical and GIS is a hierarchical structure that is made up of several sub-systems at different levels, and each sub-system has a certain function. The required set of functions is different according to the type of GIS. Examples of a sub-system include the function of input data and devices, data analysis function, and data management function. The display and spatial visualization of geographic data can be considered as a GIS sub-system (it should be noted that in cases such as maps preparation, displaying data is the fundamental function of the system.). We know that cartography is the art, science and technology of mapping (ICA 1973), and in order to achieve alignment with the scientific and technical advancements of the day, the International Cartographic Association's Working Group has recommended the following definition.

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Mahdi Modiri

Volume 4, Issue 13 , May 1995, , Pages 2-5

Abstract

  The cost of collecting basic information accounts for about seventy five percent of the total cost of geographic information systems. Satellite images, while significantly reducing the cost of providing geographic information, improve the orderly revision and update of information, and provide satellite ...  Read More The cost of collecting basic information accounts for about seventy five percent of the total cost of geographic information systems. Satellite images, while significantly reducing the cost of providing geographic information, improve the orderly revision and update of information, and provide satellite imagery with technically advantages such as: • A comprehensive and consistent view of each area of land; • Ability to regularly and continuously revise and update geographic information; • direct transfer of digital satellite imagery to the GIS; • access to archives of satellite images easily. Currently, a large part of the Earth's surface measurements are obtained from satellites. This will revise and expand our understanding of different conditions of the earth. Remote-exploration satellites provide an opportunity for continuous multi-time measurements from a wide area during a particular period of time. For this purpose, satellite data should be in a suitable format and in a manner consistent with other ground information in the GIS.

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Mahdi Modiri

Volume 4, Issue 16 , February 1995, , Pages 2-5

Abstract

  Attitude toward map as a medium of communication and cartography language has evolved over the past four decades. Cartographers, while devoting their efforts to different surveying techniques and seeking to adapt to the advancements in technology, must examine the performance and design of the maps. ...  Read More Attitude toward map as a medium of communication and cartography language has evolved over the past four decades. Cartographers, while devoting their efforts to different surveying techniques and seeking to adapt to the advancements in technology, must examine the performance and design of the maps. In this way, cartography becomes the knowledge of geographic information communication. The research on messaging and cartographic communication is significant in two historical periods. Cartography in the early fifties of the twentieth century found the methodology of psychophysics in the seventh decade of cartography research in the direction of cognitive psychology of development and evolution, and the question of how maps are processed and remembered in human’s mind was formed. This emphasis on cognitive problems in cartography did not extend as much as psychophysics, and in fact cognitive and perceptual powers were not uniformly available for cartography.

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A Note on the Principles of Remote Sensing - Part I

Mahdi Modiri

Volume 4, Issue 16 , February 1995, , Pages 22-25

Abstract

  Remote sensing is a science that provides valuable information on objects and land features by measuring distances from afar and without physical contact. Measuring distances from afar and without physical contact. In remote sensing, information can be obtained by measuring and recording the reflections ...  Read More Remote sensing is a science that provides valuable information on objects and land features by measuring distances from afar and without physical contact. Measuring distances from afar and without physical contact. In remote sensing, information can be obtained by measuring and recording the reflections of electromagnetic waves of atmosphere and ground level, which are received by sensors installed on satellites, and after their analysis, the necessary information is extracted. There are three major factors of reflection, absorption and passage in the collision of electromagnetic waves with any phenomenon, each of which depends on the wavelength of radiated energy and physical and chemical properties of the phenomenon, and the energy reflection from any phenomenon on the Earth is a function of wavelength, molecular and intracellular properties of the phenomenon and other physical characteristics of the objects under measurement. The satellite data originally contains various geometric and radiometric errors that are affected by satellite, sensor and atmospheric conditions, as well as errors in recording, transmission of information and other related issues. Satellite data become valuable and useful after making geometric and radiometric corrections. By performing geometric corrections, satellite information is readily to for analysis and utilization.

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Mahdi Modiri

Volume 3, Issue 11 , November 1994, , Pages 2-3

Abstract

  Any information system can be simply a manual system or a complex computer one. In a general view, information systems that are used in different ways seem to be diverse. But in fact all have a common goal, which is to provide a conventional method for collecting, storing, processing and providing ...  Read More Any information system can be simply a manual system or a complex computer one. In a general view, information systems that are used in different ways seem to be diverse. But in fact all have a common goal, which is to provide a conventional method for collecting, storing, processing and providing information. In other words, it can be said that it covers a limited amount of specialized information available for the user, or a wide range of information on various topics in meeting the needs of a wide range of users; for example: We can consider a library as a system of manual reception of information. Library catalogue cards comprise a database and the library staff, library users, administrative regulations, equipment (cards), and data (books) form the information system. In an automatic information system, people and data are like a manual system, but equipment and regulation change. In an automated system, it is necessary for storing data to use appropriate software and hardware, and where there is a huge amount of information, the existence of automated systems is essential.

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Mahdi Modiri

Volume 3, Issue 10 , August 1994, , Pages 2-4

Abstract

  The base and main essence of GIS in today's world is to provide reliable tools of decision-making based on geographic information. Given the wide-ranging applications of GIS, the new features considered for it, the accessibility, true dynamism, efficiency and practical advantages of GIS, it is expected ...  Read More The base and main essence of GIS in today's world is to provide reliable tools of decision-making based on geographic information. Given the wide-ranging applications of GIS, the new features considered for it, the accessibility, true dynamism, efficiency and practical advantages of GIS, it is expected that the GIS range of users find broader aspects. The base and essence of GIS in today's world is to provide reliable decision-making tools based on geographic information, and the presence of surveying engineers in the GIS environment requires careful planning, which is the basis for decisions and a guidance for future work. In an overview based on the diversity of working environment, GIS can be categorized as such: Collection of information; Combination of information; analysis of information; Presentation of information.

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Mahdi Modiri

Volume 3, Issue 12 , February 1994, , Pages 2-5

Abstract

  So far, there have been a lot of definitions of GIS, all of which trying to say what GIS is. However, today's modern systems of GIS share two forms of vector and network data. Users' demand for vector/network data of image layers including digital orthophoto has increased dramatically. There have been ...  Read More So far, there have been a lot of definitions of GIS, all of which trying to say what GIS is. However, today's modern systems of GIS share two forms of vector and network data. Users' demand for vector/network data of image layers including digital orthophoto has increased dramatically. There have been vast discussions In connection with the application of GIS, but what is to be more emphasized is the practical context and objective realization of the use of geographic information systems. In this issue, examples of defensive use, disaster management, astronomical research, and optimal use of natural talents and facilities are addressed, hoping that in the future successful cases of GIS activities will be presented.

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Mahdi Modiri

Volume 2, Issue 7 , August 1993, , Pages 2-6

Abstract

  The daily scientific development and advancements increase the scope and application of surveying in different sciences day by day. The modern technology has always provided new applications for this science, so that even the medical sciences utilize a branch of it. Today there is rarely any case within ...  Read More The daily scientific development and advancements increase the scope and application of surveying in different sciences day by day. The modern technology has always provided new applications for this science, so that even the medical sciences utilize a branch of it. Today there is rarely any case within applied sciences and developmental activities that can be carried out without any need to understand the environment, geographical position, and natural conditions and potential. More emphasis on rational planning makes the importance of accuracy of information about the quantitative and qualitative situation of the environment multiplied, for example, in urbanization and regional planning. The number of services of surveying and the scope of its contribution to scientific and technological advances is increasing.

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Mahdi Modiri

Volume 2, Issue 8 , February 1993, , Pages 2-4

Abstract

  Remote sensing is a science that provides valuable information about land objects and phenomena through distant measurement and without physical contact. As mentioned in the last issue, information can be obtained by measuring and recording changes in electromagnetic fields, gravity and sound waves. ...  Read More Remote sensing is a science that provides valuable information about land objects and phenomena through distant measurement and without physical contact. As mentioned in the last issue, information can be obtained by measuring and recording changes in electromagnetic fields, gravity and sound waves. Remote sensing is the information that can be exploited by measuring the reflection of electromagnetic waves of the atmosphere and the earth's surface and received by sensors that are installed on the satellites, and after analysis, the necessary information is extracted. Remote sensors are divided into two main active and passive groups based on source of energy and light. Active sensors such as radar have artificial energy source, and inactive sensors have a natural energy source (the sun) and are similar to cameras and scanners. They act through reflecting information in photographic and digital forms.

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Mahdi Modiri

Volume 2, Issue 5 , August 1992, , Pages 2-5

Abstract

  Since thousands of years ago, human’s activities on the earth have been accompanied by thoughts concerning where to be and where to go, how to move and in which direction. Living in nature and thinking about land and its various forms drove people to thought; human beings had to understand their ...  Read More Since thousands of years ago, human’s activities on the earth have been accompanied by thoughts concerning where to be and where to go, how to move and in which direction. Living in nature and thinking about land and its various forms drove people to thought; human beings had to understand their surroundings in order to be able to live. In distant past, human knowledge of the environment was limited to the extent of human settlements known in those days, and to the extent that the physical strength of people and natural barriers allowed. Human being used his brain and hands and drew different forms of nature in order to understand, and help others understand, the nature, and to exploit findings and experiences of other people. Utilization of drawing in order to identify places became so persistent an activity in human life that it is now considered a natural practice. Since the drawings needed to be correspondent to reality, gradually careful drawing and measurement entered into consideration, and this step should be considered as the beginning of surveying and science of cartography (mapping technology).

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Mahdi Modiri

Volume 1, Issue 4 , May 1992, , Pages 2-3

Abstract

  At the same time as practical and technological developments and mutual impact in raising the quality and scientific potential of surveying services, manufacturers of technical devices and equipment also struggle day by day to present new achievements. Over the past three years, with the exit of analogue ...  Read More At the same time as practical and technological developments and mutual impact in raising the quality and scientific potential of surveying services, manufacturers of technical devices and equipment also struggle day by day to present new achievements. Over the past three years, with the exit of analogue photogrammetric devices from the market and their replacement with analytical devices, there has been a remarkable transformation in the field of surveying and utilization of computer in that field, and extraordinary progress can be witnessed every day in the field of small and large analytical devices that use microcomputers. What’s more, a series of modern photogrammetric devices are introduced into market by manufacturers that have often had no connection with photogrammetry and mapping in the past. There are many innovative ideas available on these small but powerful devices many of which have applied aspects in the fields of photogrammetry, preparation of thematic maps and revision of previously made maps. Another valuable innovation and initiative which should be mentioned is conversion systems for the purpose of an appropriate transformation of analogous photogrammetric devices into analytical ones.

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Mahdi Modiri

Volume 2, Issue 6 , February 1992, , Pages 2-5

Abstract

  One of the major steps in surveying is the activity called the "classification operation". An operation that, while clarifying aerial photographs, collects the information of names. Classification operations have specific technical rules and regulations that the Geographic Organization has described ...  Read More One of the major steps in surveying is the activity called the "classification operation". An operation that, while clarifying aerial photographs, collects the information of names. Classification operations have specific technical rules and regulations that the Geographic Organization has described in the publications of the same name, a brief account of which is presented here. The classification of aerial photos includes the actions taken on the draft of the map before cartography operation, including some of the activities listed below: - Identification and classification of the features of natural and artificial effects and displaying them by    conventional signs; - Providing information and names.

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Mahdi Modiri

Volume 1, Issue 3 , August 1991, , Pages 1-64

Abstract

  The display of the face of the Earth (map history) has evolved from fantasy and imaginative maps to reality and geometric and graphical precision. The linkage and correlation between mathematical sciences, physics and mathematical geography with surveying and cartography have always had a profound effect ...  Read More The display of the face of the Earth (map history) has evolved from fantasy and imaginative maps to reality and geometric and graphical precision. The linkage and correlation between mathematical sciences, physics and mathematical geography with surveying and cartography have always had a profound effect on improving the accuracy of measurements, calculations and artistic drawings of the map. Particularly, the introduction of computer, remote sensing, electromagnetic waves and electronics into geography and surveying have not only made familiarity with the face of the earth possible, they also have led to ever-increasing save of costs, time and skilled work forces, while providing with accuracy of measurement and calculation in plotting and preparing maps.

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Remote Control and Processing of Geographical Information

Mahdi Modiri

Volume 1, Issue 1 , May 1990, , Pages 2-3

Abstract

  Surveying sciences, mathematics, astronomy and geography have had deep connections with each other from the outset. At any given time, these scientists have been able to play a key role in the increasingly better introducing the picture of the earth, determining the location of the points and introduction ...  Read More Surveying sciences, mathematics, astronomy and geography have had deep connections with each other from the outset. At any given time, these scientists have been able to play a key role in the increasingly better introducing the picture of the earth, determining the location of the points and introduction of geographical conditions by exploiting the technology and technical possibilities and by combining iron with art. The roots of these sciences go back to very distant past (several centuries BC, simultaneously with the emergence of the thought of creating maps), but the advent of Islam, which brought about dramatic changes in the social dimensions of humanity, contributed greatly to the dissemination of human sciences and knowledge. Islam has begun its first message with Eghra’ (read aloud), in other words, the first chapter of the Holy Qur'an is based on the pursuit of knowledge.

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